concepts from Rise of European and Indian Nationalism (Ch 1 and 2)

 1.Rise of Nationalism in Europe: 

Frédéric Sorrieu's Vision of a United World and the Impact of Nationalism in Europe

Frédéric Sorrieu, a renowned French artist, unveiled a captivating series of four prints in 1848, depicting his visionary dream of a world composed of democratic and Social Republics.

In Sorrieu's first print, a grand procession unfolds, featuring people from Europe and America marching together, paying homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass by. A female figure proudly carries the torch of Enlightenment in one hand, while grasping the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other. Symbolizing the triumph over absolutist institutions, the foreground displays the shattered remnants of their once-imposing symbols.

Within Sorrieu's utopian depiction, the people of the world are united into distinct nations, distinguished by their flags and national costumes. Leading the procession are the United States and Switzerland, followed closely by France and Germany. The procession continues with the people of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary, and Russia. Gazing down from the heavens, Christ, saints, and angels serve as powerful symbols of fraternity among the nations of the world.

During the nineteenth century, the rise of nationalism reverberated throughout Europe, instigating profound political and ideological transformations. The cumulative effect of these changes ultimately led to the emergence of the nation-state.

The genesis of nationalism can be traced back to the French Revolution in 1789. The revolution prompted significant political and constitutional shifts, as sovereignty shifted from the monarchy to a collective body of French citizens. New concepts like "la patrie" (the fatherland) and "le citoyen" (the citizen) gained prominence. To symbolize this transformation, the French people adopted a new flag, the tricolour, replacing the former one.

Although democracy faced setbacks during Napoleon's reign, his Civil Code of 1804, commonly known as the Napoleonic Code, dismantled birth-based privileges, established legal equality, and safeguarded the right to property in France.

Through Sorrieu's visionary prints and the historical context of the French Revolution, we witness the simultaneous rise of nationalism and its lasting impact on Europe's political and intellectual landscape.

Unveiling the Path to Nationalism in Europe: The Stories of Germany and Italy

Once divided into kingdoms, duchies, and cantons ruled by autonomous leaders, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland witnessed the emergence of a powerful force called nationalism.

The Aristocracy and the Birth of the Middle Class

During this time, the aristocracy reigned supreme, politically and socially, while the majority of the population consisted of peasants. However, as industrialization took hold in England in the late 18th century, new social groups began to form. The working class, as well as a middle class comprised of industrialists, businessmen, and professionals, emerged in response to the changing times.

The Ideals of Liberal Nationalism

At the heart of the movement was "liberalism," derived from the Latin word "liber," meaning free. However, political rights were restricted to property-owning men, excluding those without property and all women from participation. In 1834, Prussia initiated the formation of a customs union known as the Zollverein, which most German states joined. This union dismantled tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to just two.

The Rise of New Conservatism

In 1815, Europe witnessed a resurgence of conservatism. The conservative ideology championed monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property, and the preservation of traditional family structures. Autocratic monarchies sought to strengthen themselves by establishing modern armies, efficient bureaucracies, dynamic economies, and abolishing feudalism and serfdom. This spirit of conservatism was solidified during the Congress of Vienna in 1815, where representatives from major European powers met to settle the continent's affairs. The Bourbon dynasty was reinstated, and France relinquished territories acquired under Napoleon.

 The Revolutionaries Speak Out

In 1815, secret societies emerged across Europe, training revolutionaries and disseminating their ideas. These revolutionaries rejected monarchical rule and fought for the principles of liberty and freedom. Notably, Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini, born in Genoa in 1807, founded underground societies, including Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne. The latter society attracted like-minded individuals from Poland, France, Italy, and the German states.

The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

Between 1830 and 1848, a wave of liberal revolutions swept through Europe. In July 1830, liberal revolutionaries toppled the Bourbon Kings, establishing a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at the helm. This uprising also sparked a revolution in Brussels, leading to Belgium's separation from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Greeks fought for their independence in 1821.

Cultivating National Identity through Romanticism

Culture played a pivotal role in shaping national sentiments. Art, poetry, stories, and music became powerful vehicles for expressing and nurturing nationalist feelings. The Romanticism movement, in particular, sought to develop a unique form of nationalist sentiment. Language also played a vital role in fostering nationalist sentiments, as seen in the imposition of the Russian language and subsequent armed rebellion against Russian rule.

Hunger, Hardship, and Uprising

Europe faced economic hardships in the 1830s, and a significant population surge further strained available resources. Rising food prices and poor harvests plunged towns and countries into widespread poverty. In 1848, food shortages and rampant unemployment triggered mass protests, with the population of Paris taking to the streets.

 The Liberal Revolution Unleashed

In 1848, an educated middle class spearheaded a revolution demanding the creation of a nation-state built on parliamentary principles. Their demands included a constitution, freedom of the press, and freedom of association. Political associations converged in Frankfurt, where an all-German National Assembly was formed. On May 18, 1848, 831 elected representatives marched to the Church of St. Paul, where the Frankfurt parliament convened.

The Constitution drafted for Germany advocated a constitutional monarchy, subject to parliamentary oversight. Friedrich Wilhelm IV, the King of Prussia, was offered the crown but rejected it, joining other monarchs in opposition to the elected assembly. The middle class dominated the parliament, and women participated extensively in the liberal movement. However, suffrage rights remained denied to women during the assembly's elections.

 The Aftermath and Unification

In the years following 1848, autocratic monarchies in Central and Eastern Europe began to implement changes already seen in Western Europe prior to 1815. Serfdom and bonded labor were abolished in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia.

 The Making of Germany and Italy

After the ebb of nationalism in the mid-19th century, Germany and Italy emerged as unified nation-states. Prussia led the charge for national unification, spearheaded by its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, with the support of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.

 In January 1871, William I, the King of Prussia, was proclaimed German Emperor. The establishment of the new German Empire showcased the dominance of Prussian state power. Germany modernized its currency, banking system, legal framework, and judiciary, solidifying its position as a nation-state.

The Unification of Italy

In the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, each with its own ruling authority. Among these states, Sardinia-Piedmont was governed by an Italian princely house, while the rest were under the domination of different kings. In the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini established a secret society called Young Italy, which played a significant role in the movement for Italian unification.

Led by Chief Minister Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont emerged as the driving force behind the unification efforts. In 1859, they successfully defeated Austrian forces. The following year, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, garnering support from the local peasants. Finally, in 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed the king of a united Italy.

The Unique Case of Britain

Unlike other nations, Great Britain did not exist as a unified entity prior to the eighteenth century. It gradually grew in wealth, importance, and power, becoming the model of a nation.

The Act of Union in 1707 brought together England and Scotland to form the "United Kingdom of Great Britain." This union effectively allowed England to exert its influence over Scotland. In 1801, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom. Symbols such as the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), and the promotion of the English language contributed to the formation of the new British identity.

Visualizing the Nation

During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, artists often personified a country as a figure, with nations represented by female figures. In the context of the French Revolution, these female figures embodied concepts like Liberty, Justice, and the Republic. Liberty was symbolized by a red cap or a broken chain, while Justice was depicted as a blindfolded woman holding a pair of weighing scales.

Nationalism and Imperialism

In the late nineteenth century, nationalism became closely intertwined with imperialism. The Balkans, encompassing present-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro, emerged as a highly volatile region. The decline of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans created a tense atmosphere, with various conflicts fueling intense rivalries.

During this period, European powers engaged in fierce competition for trade, colonies, naval dominance, and military power. These rivalries eventually led to a series of wars in the Balkans and, ultimately, the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.

The disaster that Europe experienced in 1914 was a result of the fusion of nationalism with imperialism. Despite the emergence of anti-imperial movements, the struggle to establish independent nation-states proved challenging. Nevertheless, the idea of nation-states gained widespread acceptance as a natural and universal concept.